Prejudice and Stereotyping in Society Essay

Stereotyping is a form of prejudice and is also the root of racism and discrimination. A stereotype usually applies to a whole group of people who do something in a certain way. To them, it seems natural, but to some people it’s weird. Often, a name is given to the group, and to every individual. For example, nerd is the stereotype name for someone who is usually a computer whizz and can’t play sport very well. This however isn’t always true, because many people are computer whizzes and also good at sports. But, if you saw someone who you didn’t know come to school with disks and computer stuff, you would probably say, â€Å"he’s a nerd,† or â€Å"she’s a nerd. † The problem with that is that you are making a judgement of their personality without actually knowing what they are like. Another real-life example is towards blonde haired people, women in particular. One journalist went for a weekend with blonde hair, rather than her usual brunette look, and noticed that no-one took her ideas seriously. That’s what stereotypes are all about. When society has an exaggerated idea about a group of people, when you see someone who seems to fit the description you judge them as that stereotype. Some stereotypes are called labels, because it’s literally like a label stuck to you. There’s no harm in making that point, but labels can also be a name for an individual. For example, if someone was known as Lazy- Bones, it means that they don’t always do their part of the job, let the team down, and anything else that can be connected with being lazy. That person now has two choices: one is to actually live out their label and turn into a big lazy person, or they can fight back and prove that they aren’t lazy. Most stereotypes focus on the bad things about someone’s personality, or not necessarily bad, but more like an area that they’re not strong in. If someone gets labelled for something they can’t do, it could have bad psychological effects on them. This is a way of bullying. Another way that stereotyping can have a bullying effect is when there is a social stereotype of how men or women, boys or girls are supposed to behave, and one individual doesn’t fit the stereotype, people treat them like a weirdo. No-one really has to behave in a certain way and we are much too complex to be neatly shelved under a few stupid labels, as if there are only a few types of people instead of many different ones. Another problem with stereotypes is when it affects a whole group of people, such as the 19th. Century Irish. Back then the Irish had a reputation of being heavy drinkers, lazy, unreliable, troublesome, violent, and dishonest people. This meant that most of them fitted those stereotypes. For those who didn’t, the fact that the stereotype existed didn’t make it any easier for them to get employment as opposed to say, an Italian, who’s stereotype was(still is) hardworking, honest and reliable. The good Irelander might have fit the Italian stereotype, but as soon as the employee hears â€Å"Irish† they discard them. In light of the recent terrorism attacks in America, many people have become prejudiced towards Muslims, since the terrorist agency is believed to be Muslim. Fortunately, this situation hasn’t become too out of hand because political leaders such as President Bush of the USA have made us realize that it wasn’t caused by every single Muslim, but only a handful in comparison, and if anyone is to pay for it, it is the terrorists themselves. But what is it that makes us want to label, stereotype, and pre-judge? It is all part of an important process called Generalisation. Just about everyone has this ability to generalise. Generalising is an involuntary process that takes place in our minds. It is related to learning from experience and predicting the future. We can make a generalisation about fire, that it burns and could kill you if you let it. We know this from seeing things like logs or paper burning up, or say, if you put your finger into a flame and it burns your finger. Heat and pain. Now, from your experience with fire, you can say, fires are hot, and they hurt you. So when you see a fire, you know that you shouldn’t touch it. Saying that fires are hot is a prejudice, but it isn’t racist towards fires or bigotry. If we didn’t have the ability to generalise, we’d put our finger in the fire every time we see one because we’d never learn that fires can kill or hurt you. As you can see here, generalisation is an invaluable survival tool. This same principle can apply to people. If you told someone a secret, and they told everyone else, next time you have a secret, you know who not to tell. Racism is when you look at the way a certain culture/race/ethnic group do things differently to how your group might do them. This escalates to superiority, believing that your group is more important and better and more valuable than the other groups, and not accepting that they say, the â€Å"your opinion doesn’t count† syndrome, commonly known as bigotry. The most visible example of bigotry in practice is probably in the days of slavery in the United States, and the apartheid in South Africa. In America, the black people were discriminated against, forced into slavery, even sold in auctions as slaves. In South Africa, the Afrikaners (white South Africans) passed laws that restricted what black people could do. The apartheid plan was to send the natives back into their part of Africa, even though they had been in South African territory ages before the Afrikaners were even dreamed of. Bigotry is an often cruel practice but the people it affects more often than not find the strength to persevere with the oppressors, and eventually win in the end. In conclusion to all this we realize that making generalisations is important, but it is also abused to become racism, labelling, and bigotry.

Hardware analysis Essay

If any mistakes are found, he has assured them more work for less pay by making them enter all data twice, after which the computer will check for errors (Double-entry verification). This will also show who is to blame for mistakes. Output The website should be viewable on the 17inch CRT monitor. A large high spec TFT monitor is not needed, as it will only be used to see the end product of the produced website, and how it will look like to viewers on the internet. This display would be sensible to use, as the majority of internet users will be using a similar output. A standard set of speakers will be needed to test the audio files that shall be put on the website. A top of the range sub-woofer system will not be necessary, as the main purpose of the speakers will be testing. A regular set of 230w speakers should be more than fit for the purpose. A top-quality colour laser printer will not be needed to print out pages from his website. Instead the HP DeskJet 620 printer that will come with the PC he will purchase will be more cost-effective, and is adequate for its purpose as only a few pages are going to be printed on the odd occasion. It will allow him to print out pages in black or in colour from his website when and so he pleases, to see what they would look like to customers if they were to print out the same pages. BackupSecurity Strategy The website file containing the final system will be too large to be backed up on disk, as it could be well over a 100MB, due to images and video & audio files. Instead, backups shall be made at least once a week onto to as many recordable compact discs (CD-R) as needed. This process will usually take 8 minutes per recordable disc as Mr Murray is lucky enough to be receiving a 32x CD rewriter with his pc. All backup in a different location to where the computer containing the main system is, in case there is a fire, theft or flood. To make sure nobody can manipulate the website design, the computer with the website on it, and the website itself are both going to be password-protected. This will be very useful, as Mr Murray can protect the database from any unwanted intruders, and choose who he wants to have the responsibility of knowing the password. Even so, Mr Murray needs to remember to frequently change his password, in case someone finds out the password and gains access to the database. Most important of all, Mr Murray and whomsoever he chooses to tell the password to, must not write the password anywhere as this increases the risk of an impostor tampering with the design of the website. Although, the software package is quite costly, as mentioned in the identify section cost is not a huge problem for Mr Murray, as he has some family members who are ready to invest in the business. On the other hand, Mr Murray does not want to be paying large amounts of money, for a system which is not 100% guaranteed to work. Therefore Mr Murray has to find a balance, and go with the software package which he thinks is the most likely to work. After some discussion, Mr Murray and I decided that MS Publisher would be the most suitable software package for Mr Murray to use. in relation to the user requirements mentioned in the identify section. Microsoft Word could be used. As mentioned in the Identify section, it can be used to insert pictures & video clips, however it cannot be edited with as much ease as a true desktop publishing package. Front page Express would be a good choice, as it is specifically written for producing web sites. However, staff will need training, and the software package does not come cheep. Mr Murray’s advertising employees currently use Microsoft Works to produce their material. Microsoft Works is a very simple version of its bigger brother Microsoft Word. This means that staff may not need training. Microsoft Word not only includes graphics and fancy headings, but can also be used to insert video clips. Nevertheless, the cost needed to buy the program will be an issue, as Mr Murray is currently in debt from a bank loan. A desktop Publishing program could also be purchased. This would be a considerable package to consider, as it is specifically written for publishing, and can be used to publish a web site, which is accessible from anywhere in the world. Even So, there is the cost of buying the program to consider (as mentioned earlier), as well as the money and time needed to train staff. include data collection evaluation methods [In each section (e. g. video , dvd etc.. ) the best title will have a video clip of it attached on that section of the website. ]

Birthright citizenship in the United States of America Essay

In â€Å"Americanism,† Theodore Roosevelt describes the meaning of hyphenated Americans and their lives in the United States. There was no room in Roosevelt’s America for immigrants or sons of immigrants, who cling to the speech, the customs, the way of life, and the habits of thought from the old world which they have left. The hyphenated American is not an American at all. Those immigrants who hyphenated their Americanism, modifying it with the land of their or their parents’ birth, were and could not be true Americans. These Americans also can vote and be the primarily citizen of a foreign country. Roosevelt writes that the foreign-born population must be an Americanized population. They must talk the language of its native-born fellow-citizens; possess American citizenship, American ideas and maintain an American standard of living. The immigrants must not to be allowed to drift or to be put at the mercy of the exploiter. According to Roosevelt, America cannot afford to keep a lot of immigrants as industrial assets and not as human beings. We also cannot pay low wages to immigrants, and keep immigrants working on American mines, railways or working in our munitions plants because it is dangerous. All United States citizens must stand shoulder to shoulder for the elimination of race and religious prejudice. We must also improve maintenance of the American standard of living; direct every national resource, material and spiritual, and train our people to overcome difficulties. We can do all this work in a democratic country where all people have equal rights and hopes for a good future life.

Arbitration Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Arbitration - Coursework Example The advantage of arbitration is that parties can manipulate it to suit their specific requirements. In the present world, majority of lawyers and business people frequently encounter the concept of arbitration. When a dispute first arises, none of the parties may think about resorting to arbitration in the initial stages. However, any one of the disputing parties may propose that instead of the going through the usual legal procedure, the dispute can be resolved by the method of arbitration under the mutual agreement. Again, there are certain cases of dispute, where arbitration clauses are included in the standard agreement. In such cases, the parties involved in the dispute are needed to go through the arbitration process irrespective of whether arbitration can provide a mutually agreeable solution to the case. In the present world, many courts of law are exploring the option of sponsoring an arbitration process themselves. These processes are expected to resolve a number of pending cases and thus reduce the huge burden of the courts.123 The table below shows the different legislation processes that are included under ADR and also classifies them according to their formality. Arbitration is considered to be a more formal form of ADR. 4 The various legislation relating to arbitration give an idea about its international character. ... After The Act came into effect, both England and Wales witnessed an increase in the number of dispute cases settled by arbitration, while London developed into a renowned hub for international arbitration. A report published in 2007-2008 reviewing this Act declared that the legislations under the Act had been prevalent in the regions for more than ten years and were successful in providing out-of-court solutions for a large number of cases. Therefore, the Act was not required to be subjected to any significant alterations. However, the report also stated that there was still significant opportunity for the arbitrators in the country to implement strong and rational practices in the process of arbitration. The English Arbitration Act was actually an instrument which was required to be utilized effectively by the arbitrators while resolving disputes. Till the year 2007, the legislation governing arbitration in England and Wales has remained more or less the same. However, arbitration c ases in Scotland were subject to a separate legislation framework, from that of England and Wales. The Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provision) (Scotland) Act 1990 monitors the application of the UNCITRAL Model Law to commercial arbitration cases in Scotland that fall within the area of international jurisdiction. 7 Therefore, the mandatory legislations enumerated in the English Arbitration Act, 1996 can be applied to the arbitration cases which originate in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. However, the arbitral agreements do not fall under the jurisdiction of the English Law. The fundamental legislations in the Act exhibit that the process of arbitration is not a

Evolution and Extraterrestrial life Research Paper

Evolution and Extraterrestrial life - Research Paper Example The same has been explored and advocated by the supporting theorists of extraterrestrial notion. Evolution has always been a subject of great curiosity for naturalists, astronomers, physicists and social scientists since the known history of the world. The biologists, sociologists, psychologists, theologians, archaeologists and historians have presented dissimilar conceptions, theoretical frameworks and notions, controversial to one another, regarding the beginning of life and evolutionary process, on the basis of their religious and cultural beliefs on the one hand, and in the light of their observations, studies and researches on the other. Thus, hundreds of theories have been articulated and researches have been conducted in order to discover the origin of life in the universe. Theologians belonging to the Abrahamic faiths maintain similarity in respect of determining the origin of life, and narrate almost the same account i.e. ... from their Holy Scriptures in order to define the creation of the universe, they refute all theoretical frameworks contradictory to their belief system(s). Surprisingly, an overwhelming majority of the scientists, presenting contradictory evolution theories, belongs to these three faiths including Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The same is applied to the extraterrestrial life and evolution. The theorists rightly claim the certain possibility of the existence of life beyond this tiny planet of earth; the justification of their hypothesis is based upon the vastness of the infinite universe, where it is not possible that only one small planet consists of life out of such a vast and mighty universe. Hence, extraterrestrial life, according to the scientists, would also have experienced the similar evolutionary process as countless earthly species have observed. Renowned philosopher of ancient Greece Anaxagoras (488?--428 B.C.) articulated the Panspermia Theory in 5th century B.C., which suggests that there are certain signs of life in every part of the universe, and hence different creatures live in all celestial bodies in the form of similar spores. These spores or life seeds originate in space and then that life is seeded onto various planets. Scientists search for these spores in other heavenly bodies by examining meteors landing on Earth and by outer space missions. (alienabductionsexposed.com) Similarly, the ancient Greek materialist philosopher Democritus (460-370 B.C.) maintained that the world was composed of an infinite number of uncaused and eternal atoms moving randomly in a void. The spontaneous generation of life from water and slime was held to occur as a result of an accidental meeting of atoms of moist earth with atoms of fire. (Hoyle & Wickramasinghe,

Media Log and Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Media Log and Analysis - Essay Example Through an analysis of my media consumption, I managed to draw some conclusions and decipher a pattern. I will highlight the issue of sending text messages first. I realized that I am accustomed to sending more text messages during periods that I am not engaging actively in another activity. For example, I am likely to send very few texts when I am driving or playing video games. From my records, I sent a minimum of 30 messages over the 7 hours that I was busy playing video games. On the contrary, I sent 150 messages over a similar duration when I did not have much to do. This makes it clear that sending messages is a preferred preoccupation during times when I have nothing else to do. My first day of recording was a Friday and considering the fact that I sent 263 messages on Friday and 150 on Saturday, I deciphered that Saturday is a busier day translating to lesser time spent sending messages. The number of messages sent on Friday tells it all that I had little to do and I needed t o preoccupy myself through catching up with friends via messages. From this, I deciphered a negative relationship between the level of activity in the realistic world and the level of engagement in the electronic media world. Although sending text messages is fun, I realize that is should engage in real-time conversations with people. In addition, text messages often leave the recipient with a lot of room of reading in between the lines and deciphering more that a simple text intended to communicate. Moreover, I realized that it is easier for me to send a text message that starting up a conversation when I am around people (Wankel and Shaun 139). This serves to highlight the negative effects of relying on electronic media. Apparently, although I spent a lot of time sending text messages, phone calls are limited. On the first day, which was a Friday, I recorded fourteen calls. Interestingly, half of these calls were from family while the rest were from my close associates. The other two days had fewer phone calls because I was a lot busier. Sunday had only five phone calls and this implies that I spent quality time having real time conversations. Sending more text messages and having few phone calls reveals a different pattern in electronic media consumption. It shows sending messages is a preference over telephone conversations. The fact that I only engage in only fourteen phone calls while sending 263 text messages to friends only implies that I find it easier to talk to peers who are miles apart through messaging services. Moreover, I sent 126 messages on Friday from 22hrs to 4.00 am, but only had three phone calls. This implies that there is great preference to text friends during the night than during the day. However, this only happens when I am not busying myself with another form of electronic media, such as video gaming. It is evident that sending text messages has taken away the beauty of face-to-face relationships. Before this analysis, I had never r ealized that I have detached myself from the real people in my life. This has occurred in two ways. During my free time, I am busy with my phone instead of engaging actively with the people next to me (Wankel and Shaun 139). For example, it is likely for me to be sending text messages, active on the internet or checking mails instead of catching up with family over dinner. Alternatively, I would also watch a movie

Business Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 2

Business Ethics - Essay Example This made it imperative that he contemplate first the possible consequences of his actions on others. There is no shortage of philosophical principles on the subject of ethics and their complexity has made it a key topic of discussion or debates among students, academicians, politicians and businessmen. The main purpose of the study of ethics is to enable people to be guided by their principles and to see to it that their actions are not only legal and moral but also ethical. This may seem like a superfluous argument but there are decidedly many fine distinctions between the various lines of ethical thought over the centuries, as propounded by the great minds of bygone eras. There are so many situations in real life where people are confronted with ethical challenges and a knowledge of some of the more prominent ethical principles can be of great help in looking for answers. Discussion Ethics has been applied in a number of areas such as politics (cheating and lying), medicine (abort ion, organ donations, surrogate motherhood, euthanasia), legal or justice system (juvenile delinquency, retribution, incarceration, capital punishment), economics (distribution of equity and benefits), environment (exploitation of resources, pollution, tragedy of the commons), society (race, ethnicity, minority rights), the military (gay rights, DADT, torture, assassination) and in business (corruption, bribery, industrial espionage, human resources management) and the list could go on to extend to practically all aspects of human life. Businesses today have to grapple with ethical issues as well, and this paper looks at how Yahoo, Inc. dealt with China. The moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher and thinker, has cast a very long shadow on the study of ethics. His thoughts have influenced several succeeding lines of philosophers even up to this modern day and age, because most of his arguments are cogent. A careful re-reading of his philosophy shows how these are st ill very applicable today, even with many situations not even contemplated yet during his time. An example is the rapid advances in medical technologies, in which man can play and act like God, in determining issues of life and death. Questions such as abortion, euthanasia, organ transplants and surrogate motherhood are just some of the issues that have to be settled by moral ethics in which Kantian philosophy can be put to good use in having relevant discussions and hopefully arrive at good decisions. Legal systems have not kept up with these advances in medical knowledge and technologies such that the laws currently in place are grossly inadequate and cannot provide helpful answers. Ethical issues and moral considerations have likewise presented new challenges for the business entities, especially with the advent of the globalization in trade and commerce. There are many situations in which firms operate in other countries, often with laws at variance or even contrary with the dom estic laws in their country of domicile. This situation can present a tricky business environment because higher management has to contend with conflicting demands from contradictory standards of what constitutes good governance and best practices. Oftentimes, it is left to the best discretion of senior management on the best course of action, navigating a sea of laws which can work well in one country but not in another country. Ethics has seeped into the world of business in the form of corporate social responsibility (CSR) which provide guidelines on what to do in adverse or ambiguous situations without sacrificing profits. In the final analysis, there can be no clear-cut answers and it is better left to the best

The German Interior Minister Otto Schily announced that immigration Essay

The German Interior Minister Otto Schily announced that immigration rules would be relaxed to facilitate the entry of Indian sof - Essay Example Nevertheless, in the previous year German provided 10,000 green cards to technology professionals, among them being Indians. Though such an action would pose many security threats, German was ready to improve on their security so that no terrorist can pose as a soft ware expert to be issued with a visa. However, German portrays a good example of immigration and trade services globally, with host countries having to relax on some of the restrictive visa issues in order to gain a competitive advantage as other countries. However, one of the main issues that worry citizens in many of the hoist countries is likelihood of immigrants causing job shortage in the host country. Though India is a developing country, its successive growth in information technology and software is attributed to the fact that they outsource their services to multinational firms globally, but at a reliable cost. However, the United States remains the major country that receives a majority number of software expert ise from India. According to BBC news (2000), the United States had already proposed that it would increase the experts’ visas to 200,000, this shows that the rate of demand for the Indian software expertise is very high. Therefore, this third world country is has a comparative advantage in terms of software expertise. ... that has prevailed across the world, where countries mainly the developing countries have to contend with trade in services, as their skilled manpower is lured my developed countries, in the form of relaxed immigration rules and other incentives. Trade in services and immigration Trade and immigration are becoming connected since, for instance, trading in goods and services, and investing is expanding due to the low costs of globalization, transport, and availability of information. The result of this is an increased urge to study, work, and travel, or even to live abroad. When people move across borders and supply services in another country, this is regarded as trade. According to Pecoud (2007, p. 14), â€Å"trade and migration are interconnected in a globalized economy and that pressures towards liberalization may one day promote a narrow trade.† The increase of immigrants in developing countries has greatly increased with time. Immigration of skilled labor is encouraged by the developed countries and restrictive measures are minimized in order to enable these experts to venture into the country. Indeed, various benefits accrue to developed countries, with the major one being the use of immigrating human capital to advance their production capacity (Kuznar, n.d, p. 12). The immigration promotion of skilled labor is as a result of lack of a skilled workforce in these countries or the need to compete with other countries. If country A has more labor than country B, then it is only wise for country A to send labor to country B, via immigration, which is a direct method, or indirectly through exporting of goods. Thus, the movement of goods can substitute for the movement of people to various countries. In developed countries, prices of goods and services, as well as

Georgia Recreation and Park Association Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Georgia Recreation and Park Association - Essay Example These members are drawn from public enterprises, private businesses, academia, etc. Not only do they strive to provide recreation opportunities but also participate in fundraising and technical assistance activities.Bill McNair is the President of GRPA. The Presidentship is shared by Danny Jones and James Dodson. Other prominent members of the top brass include Michael Coleman, Jimmy Gisi, and Steve Card. They are supported by a group of trustees and District Commissioners, who in turn administer other local representatives.The members and Board of Trustees make a combined effort to fulfill GRPA's fundamental purpose, which is "promoting healthy lifestyles through the utilization of park facilities and recreation services for the well being of each citizen individually and the community as a whole, ensuring that park and recreation services are available, and providing organized, supervised activity as a means of prevention for a number of circumstances (disease, stress, etc.) includ ing the prevention of juvenile delinquency." Another function of GRPA is to lobby in Congress to pass new legislation that recognizes the therapeutic value of recreation.   The lobby also interacts with policymakers to allow substantial budgets to support recreation programs and services.   They also work with other non-profits within the state to "continue and/or initiate recreation programs and functions with health and wellness objectives and positive outcomes".   The GRPA also coordinates with the National Recreation and Park Association and lends a helping hand by sponsoring "special events which demonstrate or reinforce recreation, health and wellness relationships."

Accounting Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 10

Accounting - Assignment Example The game changer in Ameritel Company is the manner in which it reaches out to its employees, retailers, track sales as well as timely implementation of its new marketing strategies with the desirable Salesforce. Its Salesforce managed to reach out to the entire sales region to bridge the gap that exists between the company call center and sales teams. Furthermore, Ameritel is undertaking training campaigns for its dealers according to Reid, 2014. Ameritel has a mechanism that enables monitoring of its inventory anytime anywhere due to its efficient tracking system. The tracking system eases instant and effective visibility of dealer performance and purchases. Reid, 2014 adds that half of the organization explores working with pop and mom accounts that utilize Ameritel in selling T-Mobile. The remaining half collaborates with the wholesale section to supply the T-Mobile as well as activities involving tracking. Ameritel uses Salesforce because it is striving to achieve absolute best experience in its internal operations as well as to the customers. The other issue in its top priority is to surpass its customer expectations besides general company

The construction of sexuality through culture and history Essay Example for Free

The construction of sexuality through culture and history Essay Introduction The queer theory has led to questions on the sexuality in various cultures. Teresa de Lauretis is the person [www. cddc. vt. edu]who came up with the phrase â€Å"Queer Theory†. It was at a working conference on theorizing lesbian and gay sexualities that was held at the University of California, Santa Cruz in February 1990. Once the term queer was, at best, slang for homosexual, at worst, a term of homophobic abuse. Today queer has come to be used differently, sometimes as an umbrella term for a coalition of culturally marginal sexual self-identifications and at other times to describe a theoretical model which has developed out of more traditional lesbian and gay studies. Queer focuses on mismatches between sex, gender and desire. Institutionally, queer has been associated most prominently with lesbian and gay subjects, but its analytic framework also includes such topics as cross-dressing, hermaphroditism, gender ambiguity and gender-corrective surgery. In many respects, Queer theory is grounded in gender and sexuality. Due to this association, a debate emerges as to whether sexual orientation is natural or essential to the person, as an essentialist believes, or if sexuality is merely a construction and subject to change [www. cddc. vt. edu]. The essentialist theory was introduced to Queer Criticism as a by-product of feminism when the criticism was known by most as Lesbian/Gay Criticism. The feminists believed that both genders have an essential nature (e. g. nurturing and caring versus being aggressive and selfish), as opposed to differing by a variety of accidental or contingent features brought about by social forces. Due to this belief in the essential nature of a person, it is also natural to assume that a person’s sexual preference would be natural and essential to a person’s personality, who they are. The Constructivists counters that there is no natural, that all meaning is constructed through discourse and there is no other subject other than the creation of meaning for social theory. In a Constructivist perspective, it is not proper to take gay or lesbian as subjects with objective reality; but rather they must be understood in terms of their social context, in how genealogy creates these terms through history. Foucault explains in his The History of Sexuality, 200 years ago [www. ipce. info] there was no linguistic category for gay male. Instead, the term that applied to sex between two men was sodomy. Over time, the homosexual was created through the discourses of medicine and especially psychiatry. What is conventionally understood to be the same practice was gradually transformed from a sinful lifestyle into an issue of sexual orientation. Foucault argues that prior to this discursive creation there was no such thing as a person who could think of himself as essentially gay. Queer theory is mainly addressing the issues on gender and sexuality. Due to this question, a debate arises as to whether sexual orientation is natural or essential to the person, or if sexuality is merely a construction and subject to change. This theory has led to criticism known by most people as Lesbian/Gay Criticism. The feminists believed that both genders have an essential nature for example nurturing and caring versus being aggressive and selfish as opposed to differing by a variety of accidental or contingent features brought about by social forces. so natural to assume that a person’s sexual preference would be natural and essential to a person’s personality, who they are [www. ipce. info]. The Constructivists counter, that there is no natural, that all meaning is constructed through discourse and there is no other subject other than the creation of meaning for social theory. In a Constructivist perspective, it is not proper to take gay or lesbian as subjects with objective reality; but rather they must be understood in terms of their social context, in how genealogy creates these terms through history. Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures This refers to the behaviors, beliefs, knowledge, and references shared by members of sexual minorities or transgendered people by virtue of their membership in those minorities. Not all members of a particular sexual minority participate in, or are aware of, the subculture that may be associated with them. In addition to simply not knowing that the culture exists, non-participants may be geographically or socially isolated, they may feel stigmatized by the subculture, they may simply dislike it (feeling it is outdated, corrupted, or does not align with their personal taste or style), or they may prefer to affiliate with some other culture or subculture. The sexual minorities [Kaahumanu and Yaeger]defined by sexual orientation and gender identity include: lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered people (LGBT). they are often seen as having a common culture. The existence of (LGBT) has also been questioned by noting the exclusion of some of these groups by others; for example, biphobia among gays and lesbians, transphobia among non-trans LGB people, or lack of inclusiveness of lesbians in gay milieu. For example, in some cities, especially in North America, gay men and lesbians tend to live in certain neighborhoods. This culture is mainly associated with the people of North America or Europe. LGBT communities also organize a number of events to celebrate their culture, such as Pride parades, the Gay Games and Southern Decadence the largest LGBT street fair in North America [Kaahumanu and Yaeger].

The Life and Presidency which were ended Essay Example for Free

The Life and Presidency which were ended Essay He was the first American President to be born in the twenty-first century. He became the first American President of Roman Catholic religion. At the age of 43, he was the youngest man ever to assume the seat of the chief executive of the United States of America. He was also the youngest ever president to die while his term as president has not yet ended. On the afternoon of the 22nd day of November 1963, an assassin bullet killed the then President John Fitzgerald Kennedy (Rabe 63). It marked the end of his young life as well as his term in office which he was only able to serve for two years and ten months. The rest of the world mourned his sudden death. Members of royalty, premiers, and presidents attended his funeral. The then Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson assumed the presidency following his assassination (Barnes 8). It was his New Frontier program that earned him the edge to ultimately succeed in the presidential race (Schlesinger). Kennedy represented the Democratic Party. The then Vice President Richard M. Nixon of the Republican Party was his opponent (Scott 290). Kennedy earned international respect as the leader of the Free World (Barnes 60). By the year 1962, Kennedy significantly augmented the country’s prestige the moment he prevented a nuclear war from happening. This move forced the Soviets to pull out missiles from Communist Cuba (Rabe 4). It also signed the start of the period of â€Å"thaw† during the Cold War while relationships between the country and the Soviet Union grew friendlier. During the year 1963, a treaty prohibiting underwater and or above the ground nuclear weapons testing was signed by the both countries counting as well over a hundred other nations. On the domestic scene however, the country enjoyed the highest peak of its wealth during this point in time. The demands of the people of color for civil rights produced major domestic crises. However, the people of color were able to achieve more significant developments in their pursuit for equal rights than ever before since the Civil War. The first manned space expedition by Americans happened during President Kennedy’s term of office. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration also geared up to send astronauts to the moon during this time (Schlesinger 920). Kennedy’s Political Career Several Democratic leaders believed that Kennedy possessed quite a lot of weaknesses as a presidential aspirant. According to them, one of Kennedy’s major disadvantages as a presidential candidate was his faith. Among the other potential weaknesses include the presidential aspirant’s relative inadequate experience in dealing with international affairs, the Kennedy family’s wealth, as well as John F. Kennedy’s youth. Some members of the Democratic Party opposed Kennedy for the reason that they deemed that the presidential aspirant is too conservative. The presidential campaign of 1960 was quite a hard-fought battle. Kennedy and his opponent, Nixon were both spirited and young campaigners. Initially, most experts assumed that Kennedy’s opponent would be held victor of the election (Barnes 69). Nixon earned the advantage of serving as Eisenhower’s Vice President (Barnes 33). It is important to take into consideration that Eisenhower was an extraordinarily popular President. Nonetheless, John F. Kennedy was not as anonymous as some people consider him to be. His beautiful wife, Jackie, his affluence, and his good looks caused him to become a popular subject of magazine and broadsheet articles. His exposures in television have also been of great help to his political career. His four debates opposite Vice President Nixon were aired on television during that time (Barnes 75). The debates they had signaled the start of presidential aspirants arguing about campaign issues confronting each other (Author #). The debates Kennedy and Nixon had helped the former in gaining nationwide recognition. Kennedy’s self-confidence aided in his response to criticisms that he lacked the maturity required for assuming the chief executive position in the country. Kennedy as President He was inaugurated to the highest seat in government on the 20th day of January 1961 (Schlesinger 120). When Kennedy assumed the responsibility of the federal government, he was confronted by internal problems which include a slow-moving economy, unemployment, and augmented racial tensions. Moreover, in terms of international relations, Kennedy dealt with the ongoing spread of Communist influence as well as the threat of nuclear warfare (Barnes 105). His program called the New Frontier went on a slow start. However, the 87th Congress eventually started passing actions supported by the Kennedy government (Schlesinger 1081). The Congress endorsed the aid to economically depressed areas in April of 1961. In the following month, they allowed an increase in the minimum wage per hour from a dollar to a dollar and twenty five cents. They approved Kennedy’s Trade Expansion Act in September of 1962. It gave Kennedy extensive authority to reduce tariffs in order for the country to engage in a free trade with the European Common Market (Schlesinger 844). The United States Peace Corps was one of the most successful programs of his administration (Rabe 5). The corps deployed thousands of Americans overseas to aid the citizens in developing countries to improve their standards of living. The President restructured the country’s defense strategies by increasing standard military hardware. Kennedy sought to be equipped for non-nuclear warfare as well as to exert all possible efforts to prevent the use of nuclear weapons of destruction (Schlesinger 825). One of the chief domestic concerns during his term as president was the demands of the people of color for equal rights. With the intention to meet the rising demands of the people of color, the President called on the Congress to ratify a legislation which would require restaurants, motels, and hotels to admit customers regardless of race (Spencer 29). Furthermore, Kennedy likewise called on the Congress to give the authority to the attorney general to start court suits to desegregate academic institutions on behalf of private citizens who were not able to begin taking legal actions on their own (Spencer 30). His Assassination and his Legacy On the fateful day of November 22, 1963, while their motorcade traveled along the streets of Dallas, the President was assassinated through a series of fatal gun shots which took his life (Spencer 5). The President arrived at Dallas along with the First Lady, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson and Mrs. Johnson. The primary goal of their visit was to settle the tension in the Texas Democratic Party prior to the 1964 Presidential campaign wherein the President considered running for a second term. The group passed through the streets of Dallas in Texas in a motorcade as they head to the Dallas Trade Mart. The motorcade approached an expressway at the final leg of the trip at around 12. 30 in the afternoon (Barnes 136). All of a sudden, three gun shots were heard as President Kennedy fell down after the bullets stroke his neck and head. The doctors who attended on the wounded President did their best in a desperate attempt to save his life. However, the doctors said that the President had no chance of survival the moment he was brought to the hospital. The untimely demise of the spirited and youthful President stunned the rest of the world. The legacy of his short-lived term as chief executive of the county is one of hope instead of an enduring achievement. He assumed the highest position in the country at a time that is regarded to be one of the most dangerous periods in American history. Nonetheless, although he may have had a frequently turbulent term in office, it still remained vibrant. Ultimately, however, his legacy was one that is emotional. Kennedy’s legacy is a nostalgic commemoration of his short term presidency at a time when a new generation was in control and the country had an utterly glamorous and a well-renowned head of state. Perhaps, it is America’s version of Camelot. Although it was not for real, it is enough to cling onto until the divisiveness and unattractiveness set in (Rabe 6). The debate over the legacy of Kennedy as a chief executive and as a person remains unabated. To most of his fellow men and women, particularly those who came of age during his term of office, a sense of lost idealism and nostalgia continues to linger upon him. In recent times, however, revisionist historians have stressed his defects – the manner in which he and his brother, Robert bended the law while serving government positions by means of wiretapping and intimidating their political opponents, his numerous affairs and willingness to conceal the truth behind his health condition from his fellow men and women, the level to which his political career was sustained by his father’s wealth and influence, and his international relations policy errors in the Bay of Pigs and Vietnam (Schlesinger 293). A fair evaluation of his presidency is supposed to acknowledge his shortcomings at the same time credit his unquestionable achievements. Kennedy may have made a huge mistake in the Bay of Pigs. Nonetheless, he was able to prevent a nuclear warfare happening between the Soviets and Communist Cuba and parlayed his detente into notable agreements like the nuclear test-ban treaty. Kennedy may have failed to meet expectations in terms of affording the same civil liberties enjoyed by whites. Still, his instrumental support for the people of color was significant in their struggle in opposition to segregation. On one hand, there are those who claim that if the assassination of Kennedy had not taken place, he may have done the same mistakes in Vietnam which eventually pulled his successor down (Rabe 148). On the other hand, there are those who claim that Kennedy had an ability to rise to occasion in crucial moments, initially as a war hero and ultimately as the chief executive of the United States (Barnes 13). Perhaps most notably, by means of his rhetoric to unify the nation as well as by mean of his programs such as the Peace Corps, Kennedy inspired a generation of Americans in a manner that very few chief executives who have ever served the country were able to do during their term of office (Rabe 5). Having done so, Kennedy very well deserves the respect and admiration afforded to him. Controversy as well as mystery lingers around his death. There are those who regard his assassination as a horrible incident which signaled the end of the public innocence and marked the start of the social and political turmoil usually associated to the 1960s (Spencer 5). Even though Kennedy’s life and presidency ended all of a sudden, he was still able to leave behind a valuable political and personal legacy to his people and to the rest of the world. During his period, not everyone was enthusiastic about his actions as a President. Kennedy was looking forward that his trip to Dallas would strengthen relations between his government and the powerful, mostly Republican traditionalists who reside there. Even though he was very much aware of the opposition many of the locals there have towards him, Kennedy still had faith in the power of connecting with and reaching out with the residents and the political figures of that particular city in Texas (Spencer 6). No one could have thought the President’s trip to the city would end in a tragic way. His death permanently changed the way in which succeeding presidents mingle with, and is protected from the public. He was shot to death while he was sitting in a convertible car with the top down. From then on, no other chief executive of the nation sat in a vehicle which is not protected with a bulletproof shield (Spencer 6). The moment he was shot to death, presidential assassination is not considered to be a federal crime (Spencer 6). Thus, the police force of the city headed the investigation of the crime. Eventually, it was made clear that crimes of such magnitude could require the involvement of federal agents like those working for the Central Intelligence Agency as well as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (Spencer 7). Kennedy’s death likewise signaled significant technological as well as cultural changes in the country. News aired on television came of age reporting about his assassination as well as the events which followed thereafter. The arrest as well as the eventual murder of his suspected assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald was also aired on television (Spencer 7). The eternal legacy of his death may be something that is not certain. Nonetheless, he embodied a youthful optimism and dynamism which inspired not only his fellow men and women but people from all around the world too. He has the power, the wealth, and the youth. He kept his commitment to equality and freedom while serving his country and his people. As the chief executive, John Fitzgerald Kennedy was able to establish a public image greatly appealing to much of America. He inspired in many of his fellow men and women strong idealism and optimism, and he appeared prepared to carry the country out of one of the most challenging period in its history. Kennedy’s term as president and his young life may have been suddenly concluded by bullet shots from a gun, reducing not only his native country but the rest of the world as well in a period of great grief. His death was definitely tragic. Even so, it generated the impact of amplifying as well as reinforcing his legacy. Although Kennedy’s moments of presidential brilliance were interrupted by occasions of uncertainty, he is nonetheless cherished and respected by most people. How much greater he could have achieved, how farther he could have reached had his life not ended in an untimely death are among the most provoking inquiries that can never be given definite answers. Works Cited Barnes, John A. John F. Kennedy on Leadership: The Lessons and Legacy of a President. New York: AMACOM Division of American Management Association, 2005. Rabe, Stephen G. The Most Dangerous Area in the World: John F. Kennedy Confronts Communist Revolution in Latin America. North Carolina: UNC Press, 1999. Schlesinger, Arthur Meier. A Thousand Days. Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2002. Scott, Peter Dale. Deep Politics and the Death of JFK. California: University of California Press, 1996. Spencer, Lauren. The Assassination of John F. Kennedy. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2002.

Rhetorical Analysis Of Tiger Woods Apology Media Essay

Rhetorical Analysis Of Tiger Woods Apology Media Essay By the time he issued his apology speech Tiger woods had realized that his reputation was being tarnished by reports of adultery, domestic violence and unsportsmanlike behavior. He was right about his fame drop because at the time of his apology it had dropped from eighty five percent to thirty three percent. A positive reputation in the society is one of the most valuable assets that an individual can have throughout his life. This is because it makes a person feel confident and feel that he is playing an important role of influencing a certain audience. He was also falling in disfavor with sponsor companies. Most of the consumer product companies like to retain their spokes-personnel as long as they are able to influence their customers to buy the sponsored products and services. In the year 2008, Tiger Woods pocketed $131 million dollars for he was a spokesperson for great companies such as Nike and Gatorade. This value decreased during the first three months of his marital controversy because by February 2010 he pocketed only $ 1 million dollars. This means that within 3 months of his marital controversy, he earned $31.8 million dollars as compared to three months in the year 2008. On February 19, 2010, Woods presented a public apology for his unsportsmanlike behavior to an extensive coverage by the media. In todays society, the praxis of apology is well established. As usual if a public figure is found in an embarrassing quandary that his significance in public life is in jeopardy, he then needs to make a single speech evaluating the situations, to defend his intentions, and to remind the audience of his formerly untarnished reputation and success, using almost unvarying methods and strategies to do so. In his speech, it is evident that Woods had followed this procedure. Linkugal and Ware stated that the audience in such a personal charge appears to be easily and completely contented by the personal responses of the accused. By mediated immediacy, in todays media, all the audience bears witness to personal actions of the cel ebrities. They usually feel like we know the person in question. It was in late November 2009 when media reports all over the world started to talk about the extramarital affairs of Tiger woods, a renowned Golf player. In the consequent drama, Woods crashed his vehicle into a tree and a fire hydrant in an early morning incident. This is how the media speculation and furry about the accident in relation to his extra-marital affair grew in leaps. He later admitted the affairs but snubbed to give further comments saying that he regretted all his transgressions. He therefore claimed that the situation was ultimately personal and was a family matter. It was from that time there emerged several news shows and pundits to comment on his statement giving their opinions and criticisms. The Rhetorical Situation in Woods Apology Woods apology can be termed as a perfect apology despite of some aspects in his statement. To start with, he was reluctant to give any real explanation, but as an alternative, he talked in general terms concerning his irresponsible and selfish behavior. This can be regarded as important because the lack of an explanation left many people questioning whether he understood what actions were erroneous and why. He did not even mention whether he agreed that those actions were wrong. In addition, throughout the apology statement, Woods comments inclined more towards bolstering. For instance he provided details about how his foundation has helped the society. Again, Woods attacked his accusers especially the media for pursuing him and his family. If we try to test genuineness in the apology speech we would find that Woods apology was not from the heart. This is because he read the apology rather than saying it from the heart. Reading means that the statement was not real. Some pundits complained that the way he read his comments indicated that he was not sincere. This is because if a person has to read words, his thinking goes, implying that he is not really feeling those words. Reading reinforces the whole belief that Woods apology was choreographed by his public relations people. In addition, he covered several facts in his apology. The fact that his apology was issued live meant that he had to make sure that he used the correct words to cover each point. We should ask ourselves this question: Would it be bad to read an apology that seems scripted or to forget or mis-state something? I think either way made media to go on with their coverage on Woods. It is believed that a middle ground helped Tiger Woods to demonstrate his sincerity better. He read a short statement and then talked from heart. He never included so many points because it only took him 13 minute to deliver his apology. He later used his website and the social networks to expand some of his points. In addition we cannot forget the role of media in its speculation about performance enhancing drugs. Another criticism of Woods apology is that it was not a normal press conference. This is for the reason that there were no questions and media cameras were limited. This means that his comments went unchallenged and the journalists were not able to explore a number of transgressions including the car crash. Woods defended himself by saying that further details needed not to be discussed in front of the press and they needed to be left out for him to discuss with his wife. Lack of criticism brought up the issue of lack of third party participation. While Woods made an attempt to quell such inquiries by stating that the details were a personal matter for him and his wife to discuss, the criticism about the lack of questions brings up the issue of participationparticularly third-party participation. An extra notable criticism of this apology is the fact that it was tightly controlled. As stated earlier in the essay, no questions were allowed and cameras were limited. As far as these criticisms relate to prohibition of third party participation we cannot deny the significance of power in apologetic rhetoric. Literature Review What is an apology? An apology can be defined as public speech that is produced whenever a high-flying person tries to repair his character after it has been damaged by his or her negative behavior. There appears to be differences between the branches of discourse in an apology. Even though rhetorical analysts put it in the forensic subdivision of rhetoric, when it comes to moral character issues, the rhetoric is defined into the domain of epideictic discourse. There is a great deal of blaming and praising that goes on in apologies. Models of apologies In this essay, there are various theories of apologies that can be broken down into various categories. In a sequential order they are: four similarities by Rosenfield, four factors of apologetic strategies by Ware and Linkugal, apologia and Ryans kategoria. They have been combined and explored over the years by scholars. Rosenfields rhetorical model stated that there are four common similarities when people broadcast an apology: a verbal attack on the critics, a sharp and short controversy, facts and data placed on the speech and statements of apology that comprises of earlier statement. This theory does not apply to the apology that was made by Tiger Woods. The degree to which Woods repeated previous statements is still open to debate, as is the magnitude of the criticism made by the media. Additionally, although he did counter-attack the media, there lacked any facts or data in the center of Woods rhetorical sandwich. Ware and Linkugals approach perceived apology as a combination of four groups of factors which are differentiation, denial, transcendence and bolstering. Differentiation is the act of stating that the wrong act does not apply to the situation in a bid to separate the negative contents from the charge or to putting aside those negative issues. Denial is the act of denying the wrong doing or denying any intention to do wrong. Bolstering is the tendency of the speaker to identify with something that is favored by the audience. Finally, transcendence is the tendency of saying that the charge should not be viewed as a big issue. When evaluating the rhetoric theories in relation to Woods apology, these four factors seem to have merit in this specific case. In his model Ryan stated that checking each speech with another critic enables one to tell apart the vital issues from the bogus ones. It also aids in evaluating the merits of both speakers supplements. In addition, the critic is in a position to make relevant assessments of the relative success and failure of the speakers in relation to the final outcome of the speech. Consequently, a critic cannot comprehend an apology without thwarting them both. The relationship between kategoria and apologia on the face of it seems so obvious. But the reality is that the two are not linked in relation to the current public events. Sharon Downey has studied a genre of apologia. In her findings, she claims that as rhetorical situations are changing, so is the genre of apologia. For example, Downey states that the historical apologists used to adjust to the futility of argument. In this research, it is stated that the drama that bound the audience and the accused accuser in the conventional period has given way to the alienation of the audience, confusing accuser and the aversive apologist. In modern times charges against the accused are not explicit but are implied frequently emanating from innuendo and rumors. In addition, modern-day apologists lack a defined opponent. Usually, instead of being viewed sympathetically, apologies which are defensive are viewed with contempt. Statement of sorrow In all accounts, an apology should contain a statement of sorrow. For instance, according to the process of any apology should contain the acknowledgement of the offense, the explanation, communication of remorse and a promise of reparations. According to in an apology, the accused should acknowledge his wrongdoing, he should accept responsibility, he should be seen to express remorse and regret, and he should promise compensation and an intention to refrain from the vice. There are eight characteristics of a moral apology: admitting that one is wrong, apologizing for the act, taking responsibility for the wrong act, refraining from justifying the act, asking for forgiveness from the victim, admitting that the victim deserved a better treatment, assurance to the victim that such an act will not be repeated and finally offering amends. These statements of sorrow are referred to as termed mortification. This is where the offender acknowledges his wrong behavior and asks for forgiveness through an apology. If we critically look at Woods apology we can identify some of these aspects. Severally in the apology, woods admitted that his manners were wrong and he accepted personal and direct responsibility for his behavior. Secondly, on multiple times, Woods admitted that he was deeply sorry for his actions. He went further to acknowledge the harm that his behavior had caused to multiple people and organizations. This aspect of Woods apology helped in mending relationships by identifying the sufferers, reinforcing the sufferers version of history and admitting that the sufferers deserved a better treatment. Dating celebrities The TV shows us emotions through tears and laughter. This is done through the use of close ups which we see in our homes. This is the most intimate information that one can have about a person. According to because people have shared in celebrities lives, they feel like they know them, and so they judge them using the same criteria they use when they select their friends. They do not reject their intimates or their potential loved ones because they have weak resumes. They embrace their warm personalities and they even treat their serious politicians in this manner. In this relation, they are dating their celebrities . The closeness and immediacy that the television brings them, allows them to see more private lives of their celebrities thus eliminating a good deal in their mystery. This is echoed in politicians, who argue that the society does not respect them as much after their real life situation is shown. The reality is that people do not respect them as much; but they are all too familiar with their celebrities foibles. Generic Methodology In rhetoric analysis, the generic criticism is the style of analysis where the artifact is judged with reference from other examples in the same genre. The judgment can also be made on the basis of the existing elements within the genre itself. Simply, this means that generic criticism is a rhetorical analysis of an artifact through the eyes of a given genre. According to Kathleen rhetorical artifacts such as union messages, apologies, gallows, speeches and press conferences are some of the examples which can be well analyzed using the generic methodology. This is because it generic methodology attempts to identify forms of rhetoric through the similar attributes or functions of individuals or members of a particular group. In this essay, generic methodology is the most relevant methodology that can be applied. The main rationale for this is that this is an apology which was made in a press conference. In previous apologies, such as Nixon resignation speech, the methodology was applied. The methodology enables the critic to discover the substance and the form of the artifact therefore providing the additional insight in the functioning of the genre. In this case, the methodology will enhance the understanding of Woods apology. This will make it easy to identify the genre by category. Since this apology was dependent on the media coverage, the methodology will help to give out important revelations by use of some carefully controlled questions and answers. The methodology will establish a common characteristic through comparing Woods apology with other previously related statements. Such statements will include Nixons resignation statements and presidential inaugural speeches. The comparison will help in revealing anything useful about one or both artifacts of the genre. The comparison gives a holistic report of the artifacts rather than relying on one aspect such as history. Analyses and Comparisons Evaluation and the analysis of an apologetic rhetoric can be broken down into two elements namely the manner and the content. To start with the content, an apology should acknowledge the wrong act, take responsibility, convey regret, empathize with the victim, request for forgiveness and reconciliation, explain the relevant information in relation to concerns and questions, offer reparations and corrective actions. The greater part of Woods apology met some of these elements with the exception of how he gave detailed information concerning his marital unfaithfulness. This exception can make one to question whether that information was really important when told to the public. However, in terms of manner, an apology should be truthful, timely, sincere and voluntary. In the case of Tiger Woods lack of these elements makes his apology to be easily criticized. He took too long to issue an apology and was insincere when he was forced by circumstances to deliver one. As earlier stated in t he methodology, generic criticism tries to compare two types of artifacts in an effort of determining the common characteristics between artifacts that define a certain genre. Gerald Wilson broke Nixons resignation speech in to various themes while he was analyzing it. He wanted to know the percentage of time that the apologist used in satisfying each theme. The themes included thanking the supporters, attacking the accusers, bolstering, pledging for future actions and mortification. From his finding, Nixon spent 2.5% of his time in mortification, 19% pledging future actions, 26% bolstering, 7% thanking his supporters and he never attacked his accusers. To make up to a 100% the rest of his time maybe he was silent or doing something else that was not related to the apology. This can be compared to Woods apology. Woods spent 32.50% in mortification, 35% pledging for future actions, 4% bolstering, 20% attacking his accusers and 9% thanking his supporters. The figure below illustrates further. Figure 1. A comparison of Tiger Woods apology and Nixons resignation speech Figure 1 shows a comparison of the percent of time that Nixon and Tiger woods spent while speaking in rhetorical subgroups. Interestingly, the two speeches are approximated to be almost of the same length. Another interesting point is that they both spent almost the same time to thank their supporter but they completely differed in the attack of their accusers. This supports the observation made by Downey that counterattacks have become a contemporary discourse convention in apology. Attacks on the accusers are inevitable in modern apologies which are broadcasted to the public. In woods case, the main accusers were the media and he spent 20% of his speech attacking them. Nixon had spent only 24 seconds out of 16 minutes admitting his wrongdoing. This disappointed his listeners for they expected Nixon to admit that he had wronged or to attack his accusers. He did neither. This can be termed as non- admission of wrong doing. Nonetheless, Nixon had set a non-verbal tone of conciliation and dignity. There is another rhetorical maneuver by Jerry Falwell after he took over the operation of PTL after the resignation of Jimmy Bakker. He bolstered the perception of the congregation of his character through describing the financial situation of PTL in financial terms such as fiduciary responsibility and financial statements. This suggested that in spite being an expert in the spiritual matters, he was also an expert in the financial matters. Falwell transcended the charges of his incompetence to lead the church, by stating that the almighty Lord would not allow him to quit. Likewise, Tiger Woods bolstered his character by talking about his foundation and he transcended the accusations by stating that the affairs he had were private family matter between him and his wife. He also claimed that the media was hounding him. Walter Fisher linked discourse to motive. Discourse seeks to rejuvenate, discover, purify or subvert an image. An apology has a motivation of purification. Fisher discussed Nixons speech and compared it with Woods speech. The ethics of Nixon had been attacked. By identifying himself with the American values, Nixon purified himself. There are four important steps in Nixons speech. He started by denying that he was wrong, he endorsed his personal ethos of hard work, humble roots and loyalty. He then attacked his opponents and finally he reiterated his affection for America. On the other hand, Woods admitted his wrong act, endorsed his personal ethos for the concern of his family and public good works. He attacked the media especially Paparazzi and he finalized by confirming that he will be committed to golf and he would continue being a player and thanking the PGA tour executives and the golf players. Nixons response was tremendously favorable as compared to Woods response. There was a survey that was conducted on 3rd March 2010 that stated that 54% of the respondents believed in Woods apology and the rating of this approval was unchanged. Equivalence can be drawn between Bill Clinton, Jimmy Swaggart and Tiger Woods. Each of these celebrities was accused of adultery. In addition, each of their scandal brought forth something extra making the whole issue titillating. Woods had been attacked by his wife with a golf club. Bill Clinton was the American president and Falwell was a religious figure. Clintons scandal can be evaluated as character and sex implication in a mass mediated presidency. Most citizens of America believed that the American president was a womanizer and a draft-dodger. This was different in Woods case because of his charitable activities and with his smile he was better off to commence his apology than in the case of Bill Clinton. In Clintons case, the popular perception resulted from the fact it was his wife that he had harmed the most and if she failed to forgive him, the public would not agree to forgive him. In 1992, Clinton used two rhetorical strategies which helped him to convince the public to put the past behind and focus on the current and future events. These strategies were: public private distinction and a timeline or life pattern. These strategies helped Clinton to separate his status from his character. Ethos is the most powerful way of persuasion. Bill Clinton later triumphed over his scandal though as earlier stated, his ethos was less creditable than Woods. Still on analysis, it is important to analyze the strategies that Woods used in the delivery of his apology speech. To start with on February 19, 2010, Woods delivered a fourteen minutes speech which had a sentence length of 12.3 and 1540 words. In average, a written sentence is made of 15-23 words and a spoken sentence has ten words in length. In his speech, Woods used the active voice and only 2% of his speech that contained passive voice constructions. His speech could read or could even be understood by a child in as low as fifth grade. Woods speech could have been perceived as arrogant and pompous if he had decided to use polysyllabic words. If he would have wanted to sound like a dictionary or an encyclopedia the public could have gotten a negative feeling about him. A writer or a speaker communicates his credible ethos only when his upright character, goodwill and intelligence are projected to his audience. This can be achieved though correct choice of words, use of body langu age, use of the correct tone of voice among many other communication techniques. It is not authentic in an apology to say if I gave any offence. There were some suggestions by the media on the correct outfit that best suited the apology. Some said that Woods should wear a brown or middle blue jacket for the television and a pastel shirt so to appear off-white on the television. The best shirt that was recommended was light blue shirt. ABC news anchor; Chris Connelly said that Woods could wear a clean shirt and a sports coat without a tie. Woods combined these two in his outfit. He wore a light blue shirt, a dark jacket without a tie. Axtell recommended Woods to apply make up to reduce the shining of the face (Axtell 67). It was also recommended that Woods should maintain his eye contact with the audience to display his honesty. Little eye contact displays dishonesty. In addition any speaker should avoid looking upwards for it makes the speaker appear as if he is asking God for help. During his speech, Woods preferred to put his hand over his heart. This is a clear rhetoric of his body language. Non-verbally, he pledged to the audience that he will behave in a manner that will make them to trust him. At the start of his speech, he greeted his audience and he thanked the audience for joining him. This clearly means that Woods admitted that he was not better than the crowd and that is why he was thankful for their attendance. After that he said : Many of you in the room are my friends. Many of you in this room know me. Many of you have cheered for me, or worked with me, or supported me, and now, every one of you has good reason to be critical of me. From the quote above and throughout the speech, Woods repeated many of you at the beginning of sentences. This can be termed as anaphora. At the end of many phrases he used the word me which is epistrophe. There are other prepositions that he used such as of me, with me, know me and for me. Figures of speech provide the tools required in communication goodwill, upright character and intelligence and as Aristotle said they need to be projected. The figures of speech, visual ethos are essential tools for building an effective verbal ethos. Later in the speech, Woods used trope of euphemism when he said I had affairs. The word affair is much better than using the word adultery. The rhetorical discourse can be broken down to four sub-groups in relation to organizational schema of rhetorical discourse. Archetypal classification as according to is one of the subgroups that appears to fit in Tiger Woods apology speech. This is when the speech depends on persuasion images that are embedded i n the minds of the audience. If we use this theory on Tiger Woods we can see him casting himself as the protector of his family when he said that it annoyed him when he came to know how people have fabricated such a story (about his affairs) and when he said that he is the shield of his family from public spotlight. The role of protector of children and women is an image that Woods used to his advantage. It is very obvious that many people belief that a man is the protector of his family. This was not spoken but it is an image planted in the minds of many people. Summary of the Major Findings Tiger Woods apology can be termed as a outstanding apology despite of some aspects in his statement. To start with, he was reluctant to give any real explanation, but as an alternative, he talked in general terms concerning his irresponsible and selfish behavior. This can be regarded as important because the lack of an explanation left many people questioning whether he understood what actions were erroneous and why. He did not even mention whether he agreed that those actions were wrong. In addition, throughout the apology statement, Woods comments inclined more towards bolstering. Woods comments went unchallenged because the journalists were not able to explore a number of transgressions including the car crash. Woods defended himself by saying that further details needed not to be discussed in front of the press and they needed to be left out for him to discuss with his wife. Lack of criticism brought up the issue of lack of third party participation. In the apology, woods admitted that his manners were wrong and he accepted personal and direct responsibility for his behavior. Secondly, multiple times, Woods admitted that he was deeply sorry for his actions. He went further to acknowledge the harm that his behavior had caused to multiple people and organizations This aspect of Woods apology helped in mending relationships by the way he identified the victim, reinforced the victims version of the story and admitted that the victim deserved a relatively better treatment. Tiger woods apology can be compared to Nixons. Tiger Woods bolstered his character by talking about his foundation and he transcended the accusations by stating that the affairs he had were private family matter between him and his wife. He also claimed that the media was hounding him. He attacked the media especially Paparazzi and he finalized by confirming that he will be committed to golf and he would continue being a player and thanking the PGA tour executives and the golf players. On the main strategies that Woods used we can start with denial which was manifested through simple denial and shifting the blame. Secondly, he evaded responsibility through provocation, accident, defeasibility which made him to lose his adherence to the Buddhist faith. Thirdly, Woods reduced his offensiveness of event through bolstering where he promoted his foundation. He transcended when he said that the events were a marital issue and he attacked the accuser by saying that the media lied and stalked. He promised to correct his actions through seeking therapy and regaining his faith. Finally, in his mortification, he apologized and promised to stop playing golf temporarily. Recommendation for Further Research An interesting future study resulting from this circumstance should test the audiences appraisal of the actual wording of Woods statement versus the visual performance of his apology. By this it means testing one groups view of Woods and his apology after watching a video of his apology, and then weighing against the view of another group which only hears a broadcast.

Cardinal Joseph Bernardin :: essays research papers

Cardinal Joseph Bernardin Cardinal Joseph Bernardin was born on April 2,1928, in Columbia, South Carolina. He was son of Mrs. Marie M. Simon Bernardin, and the late Joseph Bernardin. Cardinal Bernardin attended Catholic and public schools and the University of South Carolina in Columbia. He was later accepted as a candidate for the priesthood by Most Rev. John J. Russell, then Bishop of Charleston. He studied at the following Colleges: St.Mary's, St. Mary, Kentucky, St.Mary Seminary, Baltimore, Maryland, where he received the Bachelor of Arts degree in philosophy. He also attended the Catholic University of America, Washington D.C. where he received the Master of Arts degree in Education in 1952. He was ordained to the priesthood by Bishop John J. Russell on April 26,1952, in St. Joseph Church, Columbia. His administrative skills were immediately recognized. During his 14 years in the Diocese of Charleston, he served under four bishops in many capacities, including the officed of chancellor, vicar general, diocesan consular, and administrator of the diocese. On March 9,1966, Pope Paul VI appointed Msgr. Bernardin Auxiliary Bishop of Atlanta. In doing this he became the youngest Bishop in the county. On July 10,1982, Pope John Paul II reappointed Archbishop Bernardin to Archbishop of Chicago. His installation took at Holy Name Cathedral on August 25,1982. Later Archbishop Bernardin went to the College of Cardinals. On February 2,1983 he received his "red hat." On September 9,1996 President Clinton awarded Cardinal Bernardin the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In presenting the Metal, the President cited Cardinal Bernardin's work on behalf of racial equality and arms control and noted he â€Å"has been a persistent voice for moderation.† Cardinal Bernardin was Chancellor of the Catholic Extension Society and the University of St. Mary of the Lake,Mundelein,IL. He is a founding member and Vice-Chairman of the Religious Alliance Against Pornography. In the more recent years before his death, he was a member of the Catholic Charities USA National Development Task Force and the Board of

Black and TV :: Art

Black and TV Have u ever thought about African Americans invalid with television? If not in this report you will learn about how African Americans have influenced television. You will learn about television shows that have effected television and also just certain people that have effected television also. Commercial television was born in 1948 as each of the three major networks, ABC, CBS, and NBC, began broadcasting. 1948 was also a great year in African American history with the desegregation of the United States armed forces to see Blacks in the American Military and an endorsement of civil rights in the presidential platform of the Democratic Party headed by President Harry S. Truman. (http://www.africana.com/tt_178.htm) As television news shows began to report seriously on racism and the fight for civil rights television's entertainment programs became even more white. Since its birth, the medium had avoided controversy. During the 1960s, as protests rose against both racism and the Vietnam War programming became less and less realistic. For example, some of the most popular shows on television at that time were Witches, Genies, and other Escapist Fantasy. As the cultural critic J. Fred McDonald pointed out, comedies such as Petticoat Junction and The Andy Griffith Show both set in the South portrayed all-white worlds in which prejudice did not exist. (http://www.africana.com/tt_178.htm) In 1965-a movie that came out starred Bill Cosby and Robert Culp both African Americans. The name of it was I Spy. The movie was directed to race mostly. By the late 1960s television began to come out from its fantasy world to present programming more in touch with the reality of the present times. The first comedy series to deal with race was All in the Family a show with a mostly white cast. At its head was Archie Bunker a racist. While some felt that Archie's use of racial slurs amounted to prejudice most saw the series as an important move toward realism particularly in terms of race relations on television.The Bunkers' next door neighbors were a black family whose characters were later featured in a popular spin-off series. The Jefferson’s which aired from 1975 to 1985. (http://www.engl.virgina.edu/~enwr1016/amc2d.html) Then in the late 90’s the TV World came out with a whole new channel BET. Black Entertainment Television, this was to make African Americans more noticed around the world.By the late 1990s more African Americans than ever were involved in the television industry, some in executive and production roles.

The Physics of a Diesel Engine Essay -- Energy Automobiles Essays

The Physics of a Diesel Engine The world we live in is surrounded by diesel engines. They are on the freeways, railways, airways, and are one of the leading electricity producers in the world. They are also becoming more popular in automobiles. These engines are efficient and reliable and they are getting very sophisticated. However, the physics behind these engines has not changed. By way of definition, courtesy of Diesel Engine Engineering: [a] diesel engine is an internal combustion engine in which the chemical energy of fuel is transformed into thermal energy of the cylinder charge, in consequence of the self-ignition and combustion of fuel in the engine cylinder after compression of the air charge in the cylinder (p1 Makartchouk). There are basically two types of diesel engines, two-stroke and four-stroke. In a two-stroke engine the piston is forced from the top of the cylinder by the expanding air fuel mixture. Before the piston reaches the bottom of the cylinder the used mixture, (called exhaust), is forced out of the cylinder by the incoming fresh air. The fresh air relies upon a blower, air induction system, to propel it into the combustion chamber. During this time period the piston begins to travel to the top of the cylinder and compress the fresh air sufficient to raise the temperature in the combustion chamber, (area between the top of the cylinder and the cylinder head at top dead center), to 1000-1200 degrees Fahrenheit (p12 Dagel). The fuel is then injected under pressure into the combustion chamber, the air ignites the fuel and the gases begin to expand finishing one cycle. A four-stroke engine begins the same way as the two-stroke with the expanding gases pushing the piston downward, called the ... ...n chamber rises dramatically. The combined fuel and air molecules bounce off one another and since the path of least resistance is the piston, the piston moves downward creating mechanical work. Applying physics to something in everyday use creates a new appreciation for what actually happens when you step on the accelerator pedal or see a truck pulling 40,000 plus pounds up a steep incline. With even a basic study of physics my worldview has changed. I now look at that cold piece of cast iron sitting in an engine compartment on a molecular level. Works Cited Dagel, John F., and Robert N. Brady. Diesel Engine and Fuel System Repair. Ohio: Prentice Hall, 2002. Kirkpatrick, Larry D., and Gerald F. Wheeler. Physics A World View. Florida: Harcourt College Publishers, 2001. Makartchouk, Andrei. Diesel Engine Engineering. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2002.

History of Babylonia Essay

Babylon is Akkadian â€Å"babilani† which means â€Å"the Gate of God(s)† and it became the capital of the land of Babylonia. The etymology of the name Babel in the Bible means â€Å"confused† (Gen 11:9) and throughout the Bible, Babylon was a symbol of the confusion caused by godlessness. The name Babylon is the Greek form of the Hebrew name Babel. The Early Growth of Babylon There is evidence that man has lived in this area of Mesopotamia since the beginning of civilization. The first records indicate that Babylon was established as a city around the 23rd century BC. Before this it was a provincial capital ruled by the kings of the city of Ur. Then came the migration of the Amorites. Quick Overview of Babylonian History Babylonia (pronounced babilahnia) was an ancient empire that existed in the Near East in southern Mesopotamia between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers. Throughout much of their history their main rival for supremacy were their neighbors, the Assyrians. It was the Babylonians, under King Nebuchadnezzar II, who destroyed Jerusalem, the capital of the Kingdom of Judah, and carried God’s covenant people into captivity in 587 BC. The Bible reveals much about the Babylonians all the way back from the time of Hammurapi (2000 BC) to the fall of Babylon (about 500 BC). Throughout the Old Testament there are references to the Babylonians, their people, culture, religion, military power, etc. Babylonia was a long, narrow country about 40 miles wide at its widest point and having an area of about 8,000 square miles. It was bordered on the north by Assyria, on the east by Elam, on the south and west by the Arabian desert, and on the southeast by the Persian Gulf. The earliest known inhabitants of Mesopotamia were the Sumerians, whom the Bible refers to as the people of the â€Å"land of Shinar† (Gen 10:10). Sargon, from one of the Sumerian cities, united the people of Babylonia under his rule about 2300 B.C. Many scholars believe that Sargon might have been the  same person as Nimrod (Gen 10:8). Artists Depiction of the Ziggurat at Ur Around 2000 BC Hammurapi emerged as the ruler of Babylonia. He expanded the borders of the Empire and organized its laws into a written system, also known as the Code of Hammurapi. About this time Abraham left Ur, an ancient city located in lower Babylon, and moved to Haran, a city in the north. Later, Abraham left Haran and migrated into the land of Canaan under God’s promise that he would become the father of a great nation (Gen 12). Alongside of Babylonia there must also be a mention of Assyria, which bordered Babylonia on the north. Assyria’s development was often intertwined with the course of Babylonian history. About 1270 BC, the Assyrians overpowered Babylonia. For the next 700 years, Babylonia was a lesser power as the Assyrians dominated the ancient world. Around 626 BC, Babylonian independence was finally won from Assyria by a leader named Nabopolassar. Under his leadership, Babylonia again became the dominant imperial power in the Near East and thus entered into her â€Å"golden age.† In 605 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II, the son of Nabopolassar, became ruler and reigned for 44 years. Under him the Babylonian Empire reached its greatest strength. Using the treasures which he took from other nations, Nebuchadnezzar built Babylon, the capital city of Babylonia, into one of the leading cities of the world. The famous hanging gardens of Babylon were known to the Greeks as one of the seven wonders of the world. As previously mentioned, in 587 BC, the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and carried the leading citizens of the Kingdom of Judah as prisoners to Babylon. The Hebrew prophet Jeremiah had foretold that the Jews would be free to return home to Jerusalem after 70 years. The Lord had encouraged His people through Ezekiel and Daniel who were also captives in Babylon. During this 70 year period of captivity, the Persians conquered Babylonia, and the Babylonians passed from the scene as a world power. Throughout the long period of Babylonia history, the Babylonians achieved a  high level of civilization that made an impact on the whole known world. Sumerian culture was its basis, which later Babylonians regarded as traditional. In the area of religion, the Sumerians already had a system of gods, each with a main temple in each city. The chief gods were Anu, god of heaven; Enlil, god of the air; and Enki or Ea, god of the sea. Others were Shamash, the sungod; Sin, the moon-god; Ishtar, goddess of love and war; and Adad, the storm-god. The Amorites promoted the god Marduk at the city of Babylon, so that he became the chief god of the Babylonian religion, starting around 1100 BC. Babylonian religion was temple-centered, with elaborate festivals and many different types of priests, especially the exorcist and the diviner, who mainly were trained to drive away evil spirits. Babylonian literature was mainly dominated by mythology and legends. Among these was a creation myth written to glorify their god Marduk. According to this myth, Marduk created heaven and earth from the corpse of the goddess Tiamat. Another work was the Gilgamesh Epic, a flood story written about 2000 BC. Scientific literature of the Babylonians included treatises on astronomy, mathematics, medicine, chemistry, botany, and nature. One of the main aspects of Babylonian culture was a codified system of law. Hammurapi’s famous code was the successor of earlier collections of laws going back to about 2050 BC. The Babylonians used art for the national celebration of great events and glorification of the gods. It was marked by stylized and symbolic representations, but it expressed realism and spontaneity in the depiction of animals. The Old Testament contains many references to Babylonia. Gen 10:10 mentions four Babylonian cities, Babel (Babylon), Erech (Uruk), Accad (Agade) and Calneh. These, along with Assyria, were ruled by Nimrod. Ancient Babylonia – Monarchy The Babylonian political structure was a monarchy. The king ruled through a number of officials who were directly under and responsible to him but he could intervene personally at any level of government and administration. Thus Hammurapi (1792-1750 BC) took a direct hand in dealing with property claims in Larsa after he had captured that city-state. The monarchy  was hereditary and maleprimogeniture seems to have been the guiding principle. Babylonian historians designated a continuous line of kings a â€Å"dynasty†. The king was an absolute monarch and in the very early period there were a few checks to his authority in that he had to respect custom and tradition, private property, the sensibilities of the nobles, religion and divination. The king was the ultimate authority in all areas except religion where he was subject to the dictates of the chief god as represented by his chief priest. Thus in the New Year’s festival the king’s role included being slapped in the face by the chief priest and pulled by the ears as a sign of his subservience to the god. Ancient Babylonia – Communication, Roads and Scribes Efficient administration of the country depended upon good communications through a system of roads and relay stations for messengers. Written communications passed back and forth in great number and required a large body of trained scribes. Most people, including the king and his officials, were illiterate so that they were heavily dependent upon the scribes both to write and interpret their commands and reports in an appropriate manner. Many of these letters have been discovered in modern times and they provide a fascinating glimpse of the real events and human relationships of the day, in contrast to the official versions found in royal inscriptions. Ancient Babylonia – Nebuchadnezzar II Nebuchadnezzar II marched back to Babylon and was crowned king, which inaugurated one of the most powerful periods in Babylonian history. Nebuchadnezzar continued his brilliant campaigns focusing his military maneuvers on the west, which he effectively brought under his control. It was the kingdom of Judah who had called upon Egypt to assist them against the Babylonians. King Nebuchadnezzar continued his attacks and on his second conquest the conquered Jerusalem in 586 BC taking the survivors as prisoners back to Babylon. This was known in Jewish history has â€Å"the Babylonian captivity†and â€Å"the exile†. After he destroyed Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezzar focused his attacks upon Egypt and he conquered it in 568 BC though there  has been no detailed account of this invasion ever discovered, it remains a tremendous success for the king of Babylon and the first time any Chaldean king had ever conquered Egypt. After Nebuchadnezzar’s death his successors remained obscure untilNabonidus (555-539 BC), the last of the dynasty, ascended the throne. According to history Nabonidus, for some reason, lived throughout 10 of the 17 years that he ruled, at an Arab desert oasis called Tema, which was a vast distance from Babylon. In Babylon he left his son Belshazzar, to rule on his behalf. Nabonidus and his mother were from Harran and claimed to have been a loyal subject to the last of the Assyrian kings. Both he and his mother were zealous worshipers of the moon-god Sin, the tutelary deity of Harran, but when Nabonidus tried to promote this cult in Babylonia, the native priests, especially those who followed Marduk, became enraged. This religious controversy split Babylonia in two. Some of this literary propaganda of the time has been recovered. Babylonian culture flourished during the pax Assyriaca of the 7th century BC and again under the Chaldean dynasty of the sixth century BC. Their god Nabu, son of Marduk and god of writing and learning became very popular throughout that period. The practice of astrology permeated the Babylonian society to the point that there were nightly watches by the astrologers throughout the kingdom. Archeologists have recently recovered massive detailed records of the movements of heavenly bodies. Literature was copied and studied and many new compositions were created. In art and architecture the most impressive remains that have been unearthed by archeologists are in Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylon. The city apparently had not changed much when the Greek historianHerodotus wrote about it less than a century later and called its Hanging Gardens one of the 7 wonders of the world. In 539 BC Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon. Ancient Babylonia – Houses and Farms Around the temple were clusters of houses made of sun-dried brickand inhabited by farmers and artisans. The populations of the Babylonian cities cannot be estimated with any reasonable degree of accuracy, because the  authorities, so far as extant documents reveal, took no census. The number of inhabitants of a city probably ranged from 10,000 to 50,000. The city streets were narrow, winding, and quite irregular, with high, windowless walls of houses on both sides. The streets were unpaved and undrained. The average house was a small, one-story, mud-brick structure, consisting of several rooms grouped around a court. The house of a well-to-do Babylonian, on the other hand, was probably a two-story brick dwelling of about a dozen rooms and was plastered and whitewashed both inside and out. The ground floor consisted of a reception room, kitchen, lavatory, servants’ quarters, and, sometimes, even a private chapel. Furnitureconsisted of low tables, high-backed chairs, and beds with wooden frames. Household vessels were made of clay, stone, copper, and bronze, and baskets and chests of reed and wood. Floors and walls were adorned with reed mats, skin rugs, and woolen hangings. Below the house was often located a mausoleum in which the family dead were buried. The Babylonians believed that the souls of the dead traveled to the nether world, and that, at least to some extent, life continued there as on earth. For this reason, pots, tools, weapons, and jewels were buried with the dead. Agriculture formed the economic base of Babylonian civilization with production of barley, wheat, fruits, vegetables, with cattle and sheep predominating. The main crop in the time of the ancient Babylonians was barley. The farmer would sow his seed with a tool known as a â€Å"seeder plough† The plough would create a furrow into which a seed would be dropped using a funnel. A man would have to walk beside the seeder plough and drop the seeds in at regular intervals. This would mean that all the seeds would be at exactly the correct depth. It would have taken considerable skill to achieve tasks such as irrigationand the winnowing. If the farmer got the irrigation wrong he could flood the field or let it get too dry to allow the plants to grow. Similarly if the farmer did the winnowing in too strong a wind the grain would also blow away but if he did in too weak a wind there would be chaff and dirt still mixed in. The farmer would have probably followed his father in his trade and would have been taught by him. The farmer would almost certainly have been â€Å"apprenticed† by his father. Ancient Babylonia – Social Hierarchy There were several levels in the social hierarchy with the king at the top and the slaves at the bottom. In between, in descending order, were the nobles, the free citizens and those in military and civil service. The class structure was generally rigid although some mobility from one level to another was possible. The debt slave had the possibility of paying his debts and regaining his freedom but the only hope for the foreign captive was escape or death. Thus in Babylonian society there were mainly three classes in society, theawilu, a free person of the upper class; the wardu, or slave; and themushkenu, a free person of low estate, who ranked legally between the awilu and the wardu. Most slaves were prisoners of war, but some were recruited from the Babylonian citizenry as well. For example, free persons might be reduced to slavery as punishment for certain offenses; parents could sell their children as slaves in time of need; or a man might even turn over his entire family to creditors in payment of a debt, but for no longer than three years. Ancient Babylonia – Schools For the most part the only education that a young Babylonian might have received would have been of a scribal type. Those who were sent to school to train as a scribe had to be children of wealthy or influential parents. Boys were admitted and possibly girls as well. There is no doubt that rich women often had a lot of freedom and influence. By the time of Hammurapi (1792-60) the language of Sumerian had been replaced by Akkadian as the commonly spoken language in Babylonia but Sumerian was  still used for nearly all religious texts. It was therefore necessary to train students, not only in the script, cuneiform, but in the language as well. The students’ education would begin when he was eight or nine years old. Each day he would get up at sunrise and go to school, which was commonly known as the tablet house. At the tablet house there would be a man like a schoolmaster. His title literally meant â€Å"the Expert.† There would be a number of other teachers who would each specialize in a different aspects of Sumerian and its writing. To keep order some of the senior students would be appointed as a helper. A student’s work would consist of copying tablets using a slab of wet clay. Also he would learn various texts by heart. If he successfully passed an examination the student became a scribe. Ancient Babylonia – Astronomy and the Calendar The observations of the astrologers, which were meticulously recorded on a nightly basis over many centuries, led to accurate predictions of various astronomical phenomena and the correct calculation of the solar and lunar year. The Babylonian calendar was based upon the lunar year but, thanks to the astrologer’s knowledge, could be reconciled with the solar year by means of intercalary months. We owe much of our calendar system to the Babylonians. They were probably the first people after the Sumerians to have a calendar. This calendar was very important because without it agriculture could not be planned properly. There were twelve lunar months in the year but as the months were shorter than our months often an extra month would have to be added. This was called the second Elul. Each week was divided into seven days. The day was divided into six parts each of two hours duration and containing thirty parts. The Babylonians measured time with a water or sun clock. One can see from this that the Babylonian calendar has markedsimilarities with our own: for instance the twelve months in the year and seven days in a week. Ancient Babylonia – Medicine Medicine was practiced by two kinds of experts: the physician(asu), and the exorcist (dsipu), and the talents of either or both might be demanded at the sick bed. There was a whole set of diagnostic texts in which a multitude of possible symptoms was listed and the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment given. Surgery was known and even delicate operations on the eye were performed. The Babylonians had a superb knowledge of human and animal anatomy and physiology and were aware, for example, of the circulation of the blood and the pulse. Ancient Babylonia – Cuneiform The script of the Sumerians and all the other inhabitants of Mesopotamia employed to write their language, up to the first century BC was cuneiform. The name cuneiform comes from theLatin word â€Å"cuneus†, meaning wedge. According to Babylonian beliefs Nabu, the god of scribal arts, who was also the city god of Borsippa, gave cuneiform to them. When the Akkadians, Semite invaders from the desert, adopted the Sumerian civilization and part of the Sumerian Territory they also adopted cuneiform. They adapted the script to fit their own. The next wave of Semite invaders, the Amorites, did likewise, but they continued to speak the Akkadian tongue. Thus we find Hammurapi (1792-1760 BC) who was an Amorite, speaking Akkadian and writing cuneiform. Since the time of Hammurapi, successive Mesopotamian empires controlled huge empires in the Near East. Because of this cuneiform, Akkadian became the lingua franca of the Near East, as Latin was of Medieval Europe. This of course ended when Mesopotamian civilization declined so that cuneiform was no longer being used by about the first century BC. When the Sumerians first brought cuneiform into being it was nothing like the script that it was to become. It was an ideogramatical script (a symbol represented by a word). For example a picture of sheep would mean sheep. When the Sumerians came into contact with the Akkadians they needed to adapt their script to fit. This was necessary even to write Akkadian names. Obviously it was far more important for the Akkadians because they needed to write their language in it. Cuneiform then underwent a transformation. It became a syllogramatical script where each symbol represented a sound.  Therefore the symbol for a word such as ‘dig’, if we took an English equivalent would be correctly used in the second syllable of ‘indignant’. This transformation enabled cuneiform to be used with other languages. As cuneiform changed from an ideogramatical to a syllogramatical scriptits symbols were simplified. The original pictograms were complicated and hard to write on clay tablets. The symbols developed, losing many of their lines and the remaining lines were wedge shaped and straight. Cuneiform was originally written with a reed or stick stylus but this was quickly developed into a precision tool. We have derived virtually all our knowledge of the Babylonians from texts written in cuneiform on clay tablets. From these tablets we have been able to learn their law, business, administration, religion and all other aspects of Babylonian civilization. Without these texts we would know little about the Babylonians. http://www.bible-history.com/babylonia/BabyloniaBabylonia00000023.htm HISTORY OF THE HITTITES The first Indo-European empire: 17th century BC A group of tribes, speaking Indo-European languages and collectively known as the Hittites, establish themselves as the dominant power in Anatolia. Their capital is at Bogazkoy, a dramatically fortified city on a steep slope among ravines; its walls and towers enclose no fewer than five great temples. The priest-king who makes this place his capital in the 17th century BC is Hattusilis I. He has ambitions for his people. Moving south and east with his army, he reaches the Mediterranean and continues into northern Syria. Eager to give his empire full credentials, Hattusilis brings back from Syria a team of scribes, expert in cuneiform. They adapt the cuneiform script to a new purpose, the recording of an Indo-European language, and they lay the foundation for an important state archive at Bogazkoy. When the clay tablets of this archive are discovered, in the 20th century, they provide the basis for our knowledge of the Hittites. The magic of iron: from 1500 BC The Hittites are the first people to work iron, in Anatolia from about 1500 BC. In its simple form iron is less hard than bronze, and therefore of less use as a weapon, but it seems to have had an immediate appeal – perhaps as the latest achievement of technology (with the mysterious quality of being changeable, through heating and hammering), or from a certain intrinsic magic (it is the metal in meteorites, which fall from the sky). Quite how much value is attached to iron can be judged from a famous letter of about 1250 BC, written by a Hittite king to accompany an iron dagger-blade which he is sending to a fellow monarch The furthest extent of the empire: 16th – 12th century BC In about 1600 the Hittites reach and destroy Babylon, before retreating again to their Anatolian heartland. In the 14th century they march again to establish an empire which reaches into northern Syria, east of the Euphrates, and extends down the Mediterranean coast to confront the Egyptians. A hard-fought but inconclusive engagement at Kadesh in 1275 stablizes the frontier between the two power blocs. It is followed some years later by a treaty and the marriage of the daughter of the Hittite king (Hattusilis III) to the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II.   In the 12th century the Hittite empire suddenly collapses – overwhelmed, it is thought, by the onrush of the Sea Peoples. These terrifying intruders are described in Egyptian chronicles as raging down the coast to threaten the frontiers of Egypt in about 1218 and again in 1182 BC http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=ab66#ixzz2HIAKxOZL The Hittites were an Ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established a kingdom centered at Hattusa in on the central Anatolian plateau in the 18th century BC. The HittiteEmpire reached its height around 1285 BC,  encompassing a large part of Anatolia, north-westernSyria about as far south as the mouth of the Litani River, and eastward into upper Mesopotamia. After ca. 1180 BC, the empire d isintegrated into several independent â€Å"Neo-Hittite† city-states, some surviving until as late as the 8th century BC. The term â€Å"Hittites† was taken from the King James translation of the Hebrew Bible, translating ×â€"× ªÃ—â„¢ HTY, or ב×  Ã—â„¢-×â€"× ª BNY-HT â€Å"Children of Heth† (Heth is a son of Canaan). The archaeologists who discovered the Anatolian Hittites in the 19th century initially identified them with these Biblical Hittites. Today the identification of the Biblical peoples with either the Hattusa-based empire or the Neo-Hittite kingdoms is a matter of dispute. The Hittite kingdom was commonly called the Land of Hatti by the Hittites themselves. The fullest expression is â€Å"The Land of the City of Hattusa.† This description could be applied to either the entire empire, or more narrowly just to the core territory, depending on context. The word â€Å"Hatti† is actually an Akkadogram, rather than Hittite; it is never declined according to Hittite grammatical rules. Despite the use of â€Å"Hatti†, the Hittites should be distinguished from the Hattians, an earlier people who inhabited the same region until the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, and spoke a non-Indo-European language called Hattic. The Hittites themselves referred to their language as Nesili (or in one case, Kanesili), an adverbial form meaning â€Å"in the manner of (Ka)nesa†, presumably reflecting a high concentration of Hittite speakers in the ancient city of Kanesh (modern Kà ¼ltepe, Turkey). Many modern city names in Turkey are first recorded under their Hittite names, such as Sinop and Adana, reflecting the contiguity of modernAnatolia with its ancient past. Although belonging to the Bronze Age, the Hittites were forerunners of the Iron Age, developing the manufacture of Iron artifacts from as early as the 14th century BC, when letters to foreign rulers reveal the demand for their iron goods. Recent excavations, however, have discovered evidence of iron tool production dating back at least as far as the 20th century BC. Hittite weapons were made from Bronzethough; iron was so rare and precious